Bio-Process Lab

This event was run in 2008, 2009, and 2010. It will once again be an event for the 2015 season.

Description
Bio-Process Lab is a lab-oriented competition involving the fundamental science processes of a middle school science program (Div. B) or introductory biology (Div. C). It consists of a series of biological questions or tasks which involve the use of one or more process skills such as formulating and/or evaluating hypotheses and procedures, using scientific instruments to collect data, making observations, presenting and/or interpreting data, or making inferences and conclusions.

That was straight from the rule book. In short, this event is about biology, the scientific method, and knowing how to use equipment like microscopes, etc. It is usually station-based, and often the difficult part is the time constraint rather than the actual material.

Students must bring Z87 chemical splash goggles, and are strongly encouraged to bring a calculator, which must be non-programmable. In addition, each team is allowed to bring one note sheet.

Things to Know
The basics of the event can be found in a high school Biology textbook (in fact, most of the information for Bio-Process should be there).
 * Know how to use/read a lot of scientific instruments (e.g., microscope, balance, ruler, pipette, thermometer, graduated cylinder, calipers, beakers, etc.)
 * Acids, bases, and the indicators used to identify them (including what colors they turn, etc)
 * The scientific method
 * How to use or formulate a taxonomic key
 * Genetics: DNA, RNA, Punnett squares, genotype and phenotype ratios, chromosomal deficiencies (e.g., trisomy 13-Patau syndrome), etc.
 * Know the difference between monocots and dicots in plants, and be familiar with the different plant parts. Competitors may have to dissect a plant or answer questions on the results of such a dissection.
 * How to read food chains and food webs, as well as other basic ecological concepts.
 * How to make graphs. Usually, you will be given the data to graph, although you may have to collect it if it's a simple experiment.
 * Other important topics include: respiration, photosynthesis, active transport, transpiration, osmosis and diffusion, cell division (meiosis and mitosis), cells parts and functions, and the difference between an animal and plant cell.

In addition to those topics, which will probably show up on nearly every event, there are some more minor topics that may also be useful. A knowledge of anatomy might be useful, including the bones and muscles as well as the other body systems. Blood typing, especially its connection to genetics, may also come up. Calculations on a food label have been mentioned in connection to this event as well.

Process Skills
An important aspect of this event is the application of process skills required in a laboratory setting. These processes include observing, inferring, classifying, concluding, predicting, and communicating.

Optical Microscopes
Main article: Microscope

Compound Microscopes
The compound microscope uses lenses and light to enlarge the image and is also called an optical or light microscope (versus an electron microscope). The simplest optical microscope is the magnifying glass and is good to about ten times (10X) magnification. The compound microscope has two systems of lenses for greater magnification, 1) the ocular, or eyepiece lens that one looks into and 2) the objective lens, or the lens closest to the object. Before purchasing or using a microscope, it is important to know the functions of each part.

Eyepiece Lens: the lens at the top that an observer looks through. They are usually 10X or 15X power.

Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses

Arm: Supports the tube and connects it to the base

Base: The bottom of the microscope, used for support

Illuminator: A steady light source (110 volts) used in place of a mirror. If your microscope has a mirror, it is used to reflect light from an external light source up through the bottom of the stage.

Stage: The flat platform where an observer places their slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place. If your microscope has a mechanical stage, you will be able to move the slide around by turning two knobs. One moves it left and right, the other moves it up and down.

Revolving Nosepiece or Turret: This is the part that holds two or more objective lenses and can be rotated to easily change power.

Objective Lenses: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. They almost always consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and 100X powers. When coupled with a 10X (most common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnifications of 40X (4X times 10X), 100X, 400X and 1000X. To have good resolution at 1000X, you will need a relatively sophisticated microscope with an Abbe condenser. The shortest lens is the lowest power, the longest one is the lens with the greatest power. Lenses are color coded and if built to DIN standards are interchangeable between microscopes. The high power objective lenses are retractable (i.e. 40XR). This means that if they hit a slide, the end of the lens will push in (spring loaded) thereby protecting the lens and the slide. All quality microscopes have achromatic, parcentered, parfocal lenses.

Rack Stop: This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective lens can get to the slide. It is set at the factory and keeps students from cranking the high power objective lens down into the slide and breaking things. You would only need to adjust this if you were using very thin slides and you weren't able to focus on the specimen at high power. (Tip: If you are using thin slides and can't focus, rather than adjust the rack stop, place a clear glass slide under the original slide to raise it a bit higher)

Condenser Lens: The purpose of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto the specimen. Condenser lenses are most useful at the highest powers (400X and above). Microscopes with in stage condenser lenses render a sharper image than those with no lens (at 400X). If your microscope has a maximum power of 400X, you will get the maximum benefit by using a condenser lenses rated at 0.65 NA or greater. 0.65 NA condenser lenses may be mounted in the stage and work quite well. A big advantage to a stage mounted lens is that there is one less focusing item to deal with. If you go to 1000X then you should have a focusable condenser lens with an N.A. of 1.25 or greater. Most 1000X microscopes use 1.25 Abbe condenser lens systems. The Abbe condenser lens can be moved up and down. It is set very close to the slide at 1000X and moved further away at the lower powers.

Diaphragm or Iris: Many microscopes have a rotating disk under the stage. This diaphragm has different sized holes and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of light that is projected upward into the slide. There is no set rule regarding which setting to use for a particular power. Rather, the setting is a function of the transparency of the specimen, the degree of contrast you desire and the particular objective lens in use.

Genetics
For additional information about genetics, please see the main Heredity page.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNA is a molecule responsible for carrying genetic information. DNA is found in the chromosomes, and is found in the shape of a double helix, which is basically the shape of a twisted ladder. The "rungs" of DNA are made up of adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine.

Genotype
This is the "internally coded, inheritable information" carried by all living organisms. This stored information is used as a "blueprint" or set of instructions for building and maintaining a living creature. These instructions are found within almost all cells (the "internal" part), they are written in a coded language (the genetic code), they are copied at the time of cell division or reproduction and are passed from one generation to the next ("inheritable"). These instructions are intimately involved with all aspects of the life of a cell or an organism. They control everything from the formation of protein macromolecules, to the regulation of metabolism and synthesis.

Phenotype
Phenotypes are the "outward, physical manifestation" of the organism. They are considered to describe "the physical components" of an organism. These are the physical parts, the sum of the atoms, molecules, macromolecules, cells, structures, metabolism, energy utilization, tissues, organs, reflexes and behaviors; anything that is part of the observable structure, function or behavior of a living organism.

Karyotypes
A karyotype is a chart that shows each chromosome. Each karyotype displays 23 pairs of chromosomes, including the X/Y chromosomes. Every pair is assigned a number (except for the sex chromosomes; they are always referred to as the X and Y chromosomes). Some genetic disorders can be detected by analyzing the number of chromosomes and/or the sex chromosomes. The gender of the individual can also be deduced from looking at the sex chromosomes. If there is an X and a Y, the individual is a male. A female has two X chromosomes and no Y chromosome. A karyotype is created by stopping cells in cell division and staining the chromosomes, then observing them under a light microscope.

Karyotypes can be used to diagnose genetic diseases. For example, a karyotype can reveal a third chromosome 21, which results in trisomy 21, commonly known as Down Syndrome. It can also reveal Turner syndrome (45, X), a disorder that results in females with one X chromosome, and Klinefelter's syndrome (47, XXY), in which a man has two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome.

Pedigree charts
A pedigree chart is a chart which tells one all of the known phenotypes for an organism and its ancestors, most commonly humans, show dogs, and race horses. The word pedigree is a corruption of the French "pied de gru" or crane's foot, because the typical lines and split lines (each split leading to different offspring of the one parent line) resemble the thin leg and foot of a crane.

Food Webs
Food webs describe the flow of energy within an ecosystem by linking together several food chains. Each food chain begins with an organism that uses energy from light or chemical reactions to produce organic compounds from inorganic compounds through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, called an autotroph (also referred to as a producer). Any organism that can't produce its own organic compounds and must consume other organisms to obtain them is called a heterotroph (also referred to as a consumer). Heterotrophs can be further organized based on what they consume: Note that as opposed to detritivores, decomposers break down dead and decaying organic matter using biochemical reactions without ingesting it.
 * Herbivore-a heterotroph that only consumes plants
 * Carnivore-a heterotroph that only consumes animals
 * Omnivore-a heterotroph that consumes both plants and animals
 * Detritivore-a heterotroph that consumes detritus (dead and decaying organic matter)
 * Decomposer-a heterotroph that breaks down dead and decaying organic matter using biochemical reactions

Each "step" in a food chain is called a trophic level. For example, autotrophs comprise the first trophic level of a certain food chain, the heterotrophs that consume those autotrophs make up the second trophic level, and so on. Within each food chain, only about 10% of the amount of energy that is initially available to one trophic level is available to the organisms in the next trophic level. The other 90% is used to maintain biological processes (e.g., movement, etc.) of the consumed organism, lost as heat, or lost from incomplete digestion.

Cells
A cell is a collection of biological matter enclosed by a membrane. Cells are the basic unit of all forms of life.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory is a widely accepted theory which describes properties of cells. It is based on several key points: That is true
 * All living things are composed of at least one cell
 * Cells are the most basic unit of life
 * All cells are produced from pre-existing cells

Prokaryotic Cells
Main article: Prokaryote

Prokaryotic cells or prokaryotes are cells whose genetic material is not contained within a nucleus and lack membrane-bound organelles. Despite lacking membrane-bound organelles, some prokaryotes contain protein-based microcompartments, which are believed to serve as primordial organelles. Prokaryotes can be split into two domains, bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes reproduce asexually by means of binary fission.

Bacteria
Bacteria are one of two domains of single-celled prokaryotes. Being some of the first known life forms on Earth, bacteria constitute a large chunk of Earth's biomass, and are found in an extremely wide range of environments. Bacteria reproduce asexually by means of binary fission. Some bacteria are autotrophic and obtain their energy by chemosynthesis or photosynthesis, while others are heterotrophic and break down organic matter as a source of energy. While some bacteria are pathogenic and cause disease in organisms, many are mutualistic and carry out extremely important biological processes, such as nitrogen fixation.

Archaea
Archaea are one of two domains of single-celled prokaryotes. Archaea share some characteristics with bacteria and eukaryotes, but also have unique characteristics of their own, such as their cell wall structure. Archaea utilize a variety of different energy sources, some undergoing forms of photosynthesis, while others being chemoautotrophic. No archaea have been distinctly identified as directly causing disease, and many are known to be commensalistic or mutualistic. Although many archaea have been identified in seemingly inhospitable environments, such as volcanic hot springs, many also inhabit much more favorable environments, such as oceans, marshes, and even the human body.

Eukaryotic Cells
Main article: Eukaryote

Eukaryotic cells are cells whose genetic material is contained within a nucleus. In addition, eukaryotic cells also almost always contain membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria. Organisms comprised of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes. All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes, and some unicellular organisms are eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells divide either by mitosis or meiosis. Likewise, eukaryotic cells are usually a lot bigger than prokaryotic cells.

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm refers the portion of a cell outside the nucleus that's enclosed within the cell membrane. Since prokaryotes don't have a nucleus, all of their contents are considered part of the cytoplasm. The materials composing the cytoplasm can be split into three main categories; organelles, cytosol, and small, insoluble particles called inclusions. Cytosol refers to the area of the cytoplasm not confined within an organelle, and is made of water, organic molecules, and salts. The cytosol also includes the cytoskeleton and other small structures (e.g., ribosomes, etc.). In cell division, the cytoplasm is split between the two daughter cells during cytokinesis.

Organelles
Organelles are specialized structures within a cell. While most eukaryotic cells contain a multitude of organelles, prokaryotes only sometimes contain protein-based microcompartments.

Cell Wall
Structure–a tough layer that surrounds plants, fungi, and prokaryotic cells

Function–protection and support, prevents over-expansion of cell

Cell Membrane
Structure–selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

Function–protect the cell from its surroundings

Nucleus
Structure–double-membrane compartment (referred to as the nuclear envelope), membranes contain pores to regulate transport

Function–DNA maintenance, controls all activities of the cell, RNA transcription

Nucleolus
Structure–a round, membraneless body located inside the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell

Function–the site of ribosome synthesis and assembly

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Structure–sheets of unit membrane with ribosomes on the outside and forms a tubular network throughout the cell

Function–transports chemicals between cells and within cell and provides a large surface area for the organization of chemical reactions and synthesis

Ribosome
Structure–non-membraneous, spherical bodies composed of RNA (ribonucleic acid) and protein enzymes

Function–the site of protein synthesis

Golgi Apparatus
Structure–stacks of flattened sacs of unit membrane (cisternae), vesicles pinch off the edges

Function–modifies chemicals to make them functional, secretes chemicals in tiny vesicles, stores chemicals, may produce endoplasmic reticulum

Lysosome
Structure–membrane bound bag containing hydrolytic enzymes
 * Hydrolytic Enzyme-water split biological catalyst i.e. using water to split chemical bonds

Function–break large molecules into small molecules by inserting a molecule of water into the chemical bond

Mitochondrion
Structure–composed of modified double unit membrane (protein, lipid), inner membrane infolded to form cristae

Function–site of cellular respiration ie. the release of chemical energy from food

Glucose +  Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide  +  Water  + Energy (ATP)

Chloroplast
Structure–composed of a double layer of modified membrane (protein, chlorophyll, lipid), inner membrane invaginates to form layers called "grana" (sing., granum) where chlorophyll is concentrated

Function–site of photosynthesis

Light + Carbon Dioxide + Water -> Glucose + Oxygen

Cell Division
Cell division is a part of the cell cycle in which a parent cell's growth stops and it separates into two or more daughter cells. In prokaryotes, it occurs through the process of binary fission, in which the cell nearly doubles in size, replicates its DNA, and divides in half. Although binary fission does not involve the exchange or recombination of genetic information, many bacteria exchange genetic information through a process called conjugation. In eukaryotes, cell division occurs through both mitosis and meiosis, described in more detail below.

Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of cell division in which after a parent cell replicates its genetic information, the parent cell splits to form two identical daughter cells. Because the two daughters are genetically identical to the parent cell, mitosis is essential for growth, development, and the replacement of cells in multicellular organisms. Additionally, asexually reproducing eukaryotes reproduce through mitosis (e.g., if an organism reproduces through asexual budding, the cells that comprise the mass that will become the new organism reproduce through mitosis). The process of mitosis can be defined in several distinct phases: In the final stage of cell division, known as cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the parent cell is divided between the daughter cells as it splits to become the two new daughter cells. Once this separation occurs, the process of cell division is complete.
 * Prophase-Chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the spindle apparatus is synthesized. In animal cells, centrosomes (a pair of centrioles surrounded by proteins) organize the spindle apparatus, while in plant cells the nuclear envelope serves as the primary organizer of the spindle apparatus.
 * Prometaphase-Nuclear envelope disintegrates and spindle apparatus attaches to the chromosomes.
 * Note that prometaphase is not always recognized, sometimes being included as part of prophase. It is also sometimes referred to by a different term, such as late prophase.
 * Metaphase-Chromosomes align in the center between the centrosomes.
 * Anaphase-The chromosomes separate and move towards the centrosomes.
 * Telophase-The chromosomes loosen into chromatin as the nuclear envelopes of the daughter cells start to form. Cytokinesis starts to begin.

Meiosis
Meiosis is a form of cell division in which after a parent replicates its genetic information, it splits to form two daughter cells, and those daughter cells split once more without replicating its genetic information, resulting in four cells with only half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. Those cells produced through meiosis are referred to as haploid cells, as they contain a single set of chromosomes, as opposed to cells which contain two pairs of chromosomes, which are known as diploid cells. For example, most human cells are diploid and contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 total, while sperm and egg cells contain only one pair of 23 chromosomes and are therefore haploid cells.

The process by which the original parent cell and its daughter cells divide in meiosis are the same as in mitosis, going through prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase in respective order. Note that during meiosis when the original parent cell divides, each phase is referred to as (name of stage) I, such as prophase I, prometaphase I, and so forth, and when the daughter cells of the original parent cell split into 4 haploid cells, each phase is referred to as (name of stage) II, such as prophase II, prometaphase II, and so forth.

Acids, Bases, and Indicators
Acid: A substance that contains an abundance of hydrogen ions. Acids are known to be sour (it's best not to taste them!), abrasive, and can turn litmus paper red.

Base: A substance that contains an abundance of hydroxide ions. Bases are known to taste bitter, feel soapy and slippery, and can turn litmus paper blue.

Neutralization: When an acid and base are put together, they form a salt and water.

pH Scale: A scale that goes from 0 through 14, and is used to determine the concentration of hydrogen or hydroxide ions. The lower the number, the more acidic. The higher the number, the more basic. If the number is 7, it is neutral.

Measurement Devices
In Bio-Process Lab, competitors are expected to be able to use many different common measurement devices. Some examples of measurement devices competitors might be asked to use are highlighted in the table below.

Metric Scale
Competitors in this event should be familiar with the metric scale. Although the table below displays all metric prefixes, the prefixes above giga- and below nano- are rarely used.

Other Units

 * A metric ton or tonne is 1,000 kilograms, or 1 megagram
 * Kelvin is degrees Celsius plus 273.15

Tips

 * If you have anyone on your team taking Biology, it is advisable that you put them on this event. It will give them the ability to study in class and already know a lot of the material.
 * Whenever performing a calculation, use significant figures
 * Make sure to include the proper units in your answer when necessary
 * This event contains many aspects of the following events: Anatomy, Heredity, Ecology, and Microbe Mission

Links

 * Scioly Test Exchange
 * Microscope Glossary
 * How to read a triple beam balance
 * Mitosis Animation
 * Meiosis Animation