Anatomy and Physiology

Description
Students are given time to move to as many stations as possible or given a packet while answering questions about the anatomy of humans. It will be related to two major body systems. This year consists of knowledge of the Muscular system and the Skeletal systems. For a complete photographic listing of muscles, click here.

The Stations
There will be between 10 and 20 stations. They will be marked with Roman Numerals (I,II,III,IV,V...) or they will be numbered (1,2,3,4,5). There will be corresponding pages in your packet with each of the stations. There will be blank lines and they will be numbered (Question 1a,1b,1c,2,3a,3b). On the table, there will be a question sheet with a model or a diagram. On the question sheet it may ask you to identify certain sections of the diagram or model(1a is the right ventricle ,1b is the interventricular septum,1c is the aorta) in your packet on the appropriate line. At some stations, they will include the names of parts, leaving you to organize them. In others, they will require you to know the parts. Along with identification, you will be required to answer questions on the sheet. They may be multiple choice (When it is cold, do your blood vessels a. move deeper in your body, b. move closer the skin, or c. do not move at all) or they could be short answer (describe the order of sound moving through the ear). Record your answers in the answer packet. The major topic may not be the topic that shows up the most. Students may or may not have a time limit at stations. There may also be a different type of testing, where students are given 60 seconds to look at a PowerPoint? slide and answer the question/questions on that slide. The whole group will be tested at once.

There is also a strong possibility that a model would be used. For example, the event writer could use a heart model, a mannequin of the whole body, or a skeleton to base questions off of. To do well on an identification station like this, make sure you know your labeling, and be prepared to find numbers on the model fast. Sometimes it's hard to find certain numbers, so just look very hard, and eventually you will find it. If you really can't find one of the numbers just move on.

The Packet
A packet has pages/sections corresponding to the individual stations. It will have blank lines for you to record your answer. There will be no questions/diagrams in the packet, so all work must be done at the corresponding station. All answers must be recorded in the packet. Spelling does count in the packet. Points may also be taken away if the packet is not neat or legible. As you record your answers, make sure the you are recording on the right page/section/question. This may save you time and effort. Also, it is very possible for there to be lines for your team name, team number, or the participants' names on each page. No matter what, ALWAYS make sure you fill out that information on each page, for if you don't, they can take off points.

Materials
The only materials are a pencil along with a good eraser, a non-programmable calculator, and a 2 SIDED PAGE OF NOTES. NO OTHER RESOURCES ARE ALLOWED. Students must REMEMBER all Diagrams and study material. However, making a binder is still strongly recommended to help study the needed information. Simple diagrams often help with studying more the complicated ones do. Make sure you print the guide to this event in the event info on soinc.org A useful studying book is the Complete Gray's Anatomy. However it can be get complicated. Using a high school or high-level middle school textbook will greatly assist you in preparing for this event. Charts of the heart, bones, and cross sections of the different vessels are recommended. It is also very helpful to search around for any random questions you may have, for the variety of questions that can be asked is great. Also, flashcards are a great way to study for anything. For example put on one side of a flash card "symptoms of osteoarthritis", and on the other side put the symptoms. It is also very helpful to type up a table or list of information about the diseases, so you have a quick reference sheet to study for (whether weeks before competition, or right before it).

Preparing for this event
Make a Binder! This will help you tremendously in preparing for Anatomy. Even though you can't bring it in, it's a great way to keep all your information in the same place and to remember it.

Remember your charts and diagrams. They are very important in this event. It will account for a majority of the questions on the test. They can be used in the testing room.

Practice the calculating parts of this event. You will need to calculate blood pressure, mean arterial pressure,etc. Make up sample problems to help you prepare. And Don't forget to remember the equations for all of them!

Covered Information
You will be tested on various topics about two body systems. This year's body systems are the muscular system and the skeletal system. Topics can vary from diseases in those symptoms, to the general anatomy, and the functions of that system.

Circulatory System (not for 2010)


For the CIRCULATORY system, you will need to know:

Calculations
it is necessary for you to know the following calculations:

Pulse Pressure= Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure

Heart Rate= Number of heart beats per minute

Stroke Volume= Amount of Blood pumped out of the heart in one beat. Also calculated by- End Diastolic Volume - End Systolic Volume

Cardiac Output= Amount of Blood pumped out of the heart in one minute. Calculated by Heart Rate x Stroke Volume

Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) = 2/3(Diastolic Pressure) x 1/3(Systolic Pressure)

The Heart
-All about the heart, including chambers, parts of the heart, and blood flow through the heart.

a. Main PARTS OF THE HEART IN ORDER OF BLOOD FLOW(also includes vessels leading in and out of the heart ): Superior Vena Cava/Inferior Vena Cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, pulmonary capillary bed(lungs), pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid(mitrial valve), left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, Superior vena cava/inferior vena cava.

-MAIN FUNCTIONS of PARTS OF THE HEART

a. The Atrium. The atrium's function is to transport blood to the ventricles. The right atrium's job is to receive oxygenated lacking blood from the body. The Left Atrium's function is to receive oxygenated blood from the lungs.(NOTE: if you are looking at a diagram of the heart, the right atrium would be on the left side, and the left atrium would be on the right side because you are looking in front of the heart.)

b. Ventricles. The ventricles job is to receives blood from the atrium and then pump it to a location. The right ventricle is suppose to pump oxygen lacking blood from the right atrium to the lungs/pulmonary capillary beds to be filled with oxygen, released of carbon dioxide and it is brought back to the heart to the left ventricles, which pump the blood to all parts of the body.

c. Valves. The valves in the heart are suppose to stop blood from going into the wrong place at the wrong time. For example, the triscupid's job is to stop blood from the right atrium from going to the right ventricles at the wrong time. Main valves in the heart include the tricuspid valve, the pulmonary valve, the bicuspid valve, and the aortic valve.

Heart Diagram



Labels

1. Aorta (Aortic Arch)

2. Superior Vena Cava

3. Right Pulmonary Artery

4. Right Pulmonary Veins

5. Right Atrium

6. Tricuspid Valve

7. Right Ventricle

8. Inferior Vena Cava

9. Left Pulmonary Artery

10. Left Pulmonary Veins

11. Left Atrium

12. Mitral Valve (It is a bicuspid valve)

13. Aortic Valve (It is a tricuspid valve)

14. Left Ventricle

15. Aorta (Abdominal Aorta)

Blood Vessel
All three types, arteries, veins, capillaries, and also arterioles and venules. You will need to know their structure, their functions, and how they are alike and different. There are three layers to all vessels except for capillaries, which have one epithelial cell thick walls to let nutrients and other materials to go through.

a. Arteries and Arterioles. These blood vessels carry blood away from the heart. For the most part, they carry oxygen rich, "red" blood, but there is one exception. The pulmonary arteries carry oxygen poor, "blue" blood away from the heart to the lungs. These vessels have very thick muscle cell layers, since they need to pump the blood. Arteries are the vessels that lead immediately from the heart and other that lead from those. Arterioles are basically very small versions of arteries, with much less muscle cells. They feed to the capillaries.

b. Veins and venules. These blood vessels carry blood back to the heart from the rest of the body. For the most part, they carry oxygen poor, "blue" blood, but there is one exception. The pulmonary veins carry oxygen rich, "red" blood back to the heart from the lungs. These vessels have very small muscle layers, and have valves. Venules are very small versions of veins. They directly take blood from the capillaries.

c. Capillaries. Capillaries are the smallest types of blood vessels. It is in the capillaries that oxygen exchange and other exchanges of nutrients and wastes take place. It is so because capillaries only have a cell thick wall made of epithelial cells, and materials can easily pass through. Arterioles feed into capillaries and venules take used blood from it.

Blood
There are three main components of blood:

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)- these blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of hematopoiesis (or more specifically, erythropoiesis). These cell lack a nucleus and are used to carry oxygen to the cells throughout the body. Each erythrocyte has a life span of about 120 days, and at the end of their life span they are filtered out of the blood in the spleen. Erythrocytes also cannot reproduce. These cells contain hemoglobin- a protein that is used to allow the erythrocyte to carry oxygen.

Platelets (Thrombocytes)- These blood cells are also formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of hematopoiesis. These cells also do not contain a nucleus. These cells are produced from fragmentation of a larger precursor cell- the megakaryocyte. These cells help allow the blood to clot. Therefore this cell is necessary in the process of hemostasis- the process by which bleeding stops.

White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)- These blood cells are also formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of hematopoiesis. Leukocytes help aid in the immune system. there are many different kinds of leukocytes, including: lymphocytes, basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils, monocyte, macrophage.


 * Types of White Blood Cells
 * Granulocytes- Granulocytes are white blood cells that have differently stained granules when viewed under a microscope. Granulocytes are Basophils, Neutrophils, and Eosinophils.
 * Basophils- Basophils are a type of White Blood Cell, and more specifically a granulocyte. It is actually the least common white blood cell in the body. They are thought to be associated with allergies, as they can secrete a substance known as histamine.

Blood Cell Pictures
Erythrocytes:

Real Picture:



Graphic:



Thrombocytes:

Real Picture:



(It is the center cell)

Graphic:



White Blood Cells:

Basophil-

Real:



Graphic:



Neutrophil-

Real:



Graphic:



Eosinophil-

Real:



Graphic:



Lymphocyte-

Real:



Graphic:



Macrophage-

Real:



Graphic:



Monocyte-

Real:



Graphic:



Hematopoiesis
Hematopoiesis is the process by which all blood cells (erythrocytes, thrombocytes, and leukocytes) are made. All the blood cells start out as a stem cell. Then the stem cell specializes to eventually become one of the types of blood cells.



Circulatory System Diseases
A list of diseases you will need to know will be listed on the rules every year. The disease needed to know for all competition levels are as follows:

- Arteriosclerosis

- Atherosclerosis

- Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)

- Hypercholesterolemia (High Blood Cholesterol)

- Stroke

- Myocardial infarction (Heart Attack)

- Cardiogenic Shock

- Lymphoma

For the National Competition, you will need to know the following:

- Atrial Fibrillation

- Congestive Heart Failure

- Kawasaki's Disease

The information about these that you will need to know include:

-causes

-symptoms

-how to treat and prevent it.

The following is a table of the disease necessary for this year's Anatomy event:

Thanks to http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/ as a source for this information

Skeletal System
For the skeletal system you will need to know:


 * 1) The names of the bones and their surface anatomy as shown on a diagram or X-ray
 * 2) Name, structure, and function of types of joints and ranges allowed by each joint
 * 3) Structures of bones in cross-section
 * 4) How to distinguish between types of vertebrae
 * 5) Diseases such as osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, disc herniation, and scoliosis
 * 6) Effects of exercise on the skeletal system

Antagonistic Pairs
Muscles work in antagonistic pairs. This basically means that there are always at least two muscles working in opposite functions for any joint. One will, for example, extend the joint, while the other flexes it. A good example is the elbow joint. The Triceps brachii extends the joint when it contracts, and the Biceps brachii flexes the joint when it contracts.

interactive animation to see this concept in action

Of course, there are never only two muscles acting on a joint, however. In the scenario I just described, the Brachialis and Brachioradialis would be acting on the elbow in flexion with the Biceps, and the Anconæus would act with the Triceps, although it has a very minor function.

Three Types of Muscle
As the title of this section implies, there are three types of muscle: Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth.



Skeletal Muscle
Despite the fact that there are three types of muscle, skeletal muscle is the kind most stressed by the event. Science Olympiad requires you to know 50 skeletal muscles for the event. A comprehensive list can be found here. The skeletal muscle is the kind most commonly thought of when one hears the word "muscle". Examples include Vastus muscles, the Rectus abdominis, and the Biceps brachii.




 * A Tendon attaches muscle to bone. The Epimysium (plural epimysia) is a layer of dense connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle. Its function is to protect muscles from friction that occurs between other muscles and bones.  In tendons, it is thicker and contains more collagen.
 * The muscle consists of many Fascicles (aka bundles) of muscle fibers. Each fasicle is wrapped in a connective tissue covering called the Perimysium.
 * The Endomysium consists mostly of reticular fibers. It is the sheath of connective tissue surrounding a fiber.

Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber



 * The skeletal muscle fiber is a cell.
 * The Sarcolemma is the plasma membrane.
 * It has multiple inward extensions which form a set of T Tubules (the T stands for Transverse).
 * The Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm & the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum is the endoplasmic reticulum.
 * Myofibrils are the cylindrical organelles found inside a muscle fiber.
 * Myofilamentsare the filaments of a myofibril.
 * Myofilaments are organized into repeating units called Sarcomeres.



When muscles contract, the I band and H zone decrease in length but the A band stays the same length.
 * Above is a picture of the structure of sarcomere.
 * There are two types of myofilaments. Myosin filaments are thick and Actin filaments are thin.
 * Z lines separate myofibrils into the compartments called sarcomeres.
 * I bands are where there are only thin filaments.
 * H zones are where there are only thick filaments.
 * A bands are all along the thick filaments. (some overlapping)

The NMJ and Muscle Contraction
The neuromuscular junction is the point where a motor neuron meets the muscle fiber. One motor neuron can form many NMJ's. The surface of the muscle fiber forms small ridged folds for the end of axon to rest in. Inside these folds are depressions with acetylcholine receptors. The folds are known as synaptic clefts.

Acetylcholine is necessary for life. It is the only neurotransmitter that is used in the motor division of the somatic nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary actions.

Muscular System Diseases
Muscles have many important functions in the body. They:
 * Enable movement
 * Aid in respiration (diaphragm)
 * Aid in digestion
 * Protect internal organs
 * Help move blood throughout the body

Endocrine System
The Endocrine System is a series of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Any gland that secretes directly into the blood is thereby called an endocrine gland. An exocrine gland is one that secretes hormones into a duct. The pancreas is an example of both kinds, because it secretes different hormones through different channels.

Feedback Inhibition
Feedback Inhibition is the process that regulates the level of hormonesx in the body.

Sample Exercise
Here are some sample problems for Anatomy

1. Write down the detailed path of the blood traveling through the heart, to the rest of the body, and back again.

2. List the three types of blood vessels and describe how they are different and alike.

3. What is the function of the atrium? ventricles?

4. What is the job of the Vena cava? the Aorta?

5. What does the valves of the heart do?

Disease and Drugs.

What are some of the effects of nicotine on the body?

How does caffeine affect your blood pressure?

How does alcohol affect the human body?

How will the deposit of plaque in your blood vessels affect your health? What are some of the diseases you will get?

Calculations

If systolic pressure is 112 and diastolic pressure is 80, what is the pulse pressure? and the Mean Arterial Pressure? Please list the equations you used.

One of your classmates has a heart rate of 72, a systolic pressure of 138 and diastolic pressure of 65, and an end diastolic volume of 105 and end systolic volume of 46. What is their cardiac output? Please write the equation you used.

Below is a diagram of the spinal cord followed by a question sheet and an answer sheet. In the answer sheet, remember to imagine lines after the numbers.



5. What are the smallest kind of blood vessel?

6. Name the kind of circulation if the blood goes from the heart to the lungs.

7. Name the kind of circulation if the blood goes from the lungs to the muscles to the heart.

8. Name the layers of the heart from outside to inside.

9. Where is the transportation of nutrients to a muscle occur?

Useful links

 * Most important link, to the official site of the Anatomy event
 * for disease information webmd.com
 * US National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health
 * the national institute of drug abuse
 * The text and some images from Gray's Anatomy
 * Detailed, interactive diagrams on parts of the systems
 * Scioly Test Exchange
 * National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
 * Great tutorial on the human skeleton