Anatomy and Physiology

Description
Students are given time to move to as many stations as possible or given a packet while answering questions about the anatomy of humans. It will be related to two or three major body systems.

The Stations
There will be between 10 and 20 stations. They will be marked with Roman Numerals (I, II, III, IV, V...) or they will be numbered (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). There will be corresponding pages in your packet with each of the stations. There will be blank lines and they will be numbered (Question 1a, 1b, 1c, 2, 3a, 3b). On the table, there will be a question sheet with a model or a diagram. On the question sheet it may ask you to identify certain sections of the diagram or model (1a is the right ventricle, 1b is the interventricular septum, 1c is the aorta) in your packet on the appropriate line. At some stations, they will include the names of parts, leaving you to organize them. In others, they will require you to know the parts. Along with identification, you will be required to answer questions on the sheet. They may be multiple choice (When it is cold, do your blood vessels a. move deeper in your body, b. move closer the skin, or c. do not move at all) or they could be short answer (describe the order of sound moving through the ear). Record your answers in the answer packet. The major topic may not be the topic that shows up the most. Students may or may not have a time limit at stations. There may also be a different type of testing, where students are given 60 seconds to look at a PowerPoint slide and answer the question/questions on that slide. The whole group will be tested at once.

There is also a strong possibility that a model would be used. For example, the event writer could use a heart model, a mannequin of the whole body, or a skeleton to base questions off of. To do well on an identification station like this, make sure you know your labeling, and be prepared to find numbers on the model fast. Sometimes it's hard to find certain numbers, so just look very hard, and eventually you will find it. If you really can't find one of the numbers just move on.

The Packet
A packet has pages/sections corresponding to the individual stations. It will have blank lines for you to record your answer. There will be no questions/diagrams in the packet, so all work must be done at the corresponding station. All answers must be recorded in the packet. Spelling does count in the packet. Points may also be taken away if the packet is not neat or legible. As you record your answers, make sure that you are recording on the right page/section/question. This may save you time and effort. Also, it is very possible for there to be lines for your team name, team number, or the participants' names on each page. No matter what, ALWAYS make sure you fill out that information on each page, for if you don't, they can take off points.

Materials
The only materials are a pencil along with a good eraser, a non-programmable calculator, and a 2 SIDED PAGE OF NOTES. NO OTHER RESOURCES ARE ALLOWED. Students must REMEMBER all Diagrams and study material.

However, making a binder is still strongly recommended to help study the needed information. Simple diagrams often help with studying more the complicated ones do. Make sure you print the guide to this event in the event info on soinc.org. A useful studying book is the Complete Gray's Anatomy. However, it can get complicated, so using a high school or high-level middle school textbook will greatly assist you in preparing for this event. Charts of the heart, bones, and cross sections of the different vessels are recommended. It is also very helpful to search around for any random questions you may have, for the variety of questions that can be asked is great. Also, flashcards are a great way to study for anything. For example, put on one side of a flash card "symptoms of osteoarthritis", and on the other side list the symptoms. It is also very helpful to type up a table or list of information about the diseases, so you have a quick reference sheet to study off of (whether weeks before competition, or right before it).

Preparing for this event
Make a binder! This will help you tremendously in preparing for Anatomy. Even though you can't bring it in, it's a great way to keep all your information in the same place and to remember it.

Remember your charts and diagrams. They are very important in this event. It will account for a majority of the questions on the test. They can be used in the testing room.

Practice the calculating parts of this event. You will need to calculate blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, etc. Make up sample problems to help you prepare. And don't forget to remember the equations for all of them!

Flash cards can be a useful resource for studying the skeletal and muscular system, whether you create them yourself or buy them.

Covered Information
You will be tested on various topics about two body systems. This year consists of knowledge of the Respiratory, Muscular, and Endocrine systems. Topics can vary from diseases in those symptoms, to the general anatomy, and the functions of that system. For a complete photographic listing of muscles, click here.

Past Systems
Circulatory

Skeletal System
 For the skeletal system you will need to know:


 * 1) The names of the bones and their surface anatomy as shown on a diagram or X-ray
 * 2) Name, structure, and function of types of joints and ranges allowed by each joint
 * 3) Structures of bones in cross-section
 * 4) How to distinguish between types of vertebrae
 * 5) Diseases such as osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, disc herniation, and scoliosis
 * 6) Effects of exercise on the skeletal system

Muscular System


Antagonistic Pairs
Muscles work in antagonistic pairs. This basically means that there are always at least two muscles working in opposite functions for any joint. One will, for example, extend the joint, while the other flexes it. A good example is the elbow joint. The Triceps brachii extends the joint when it contracts, and the Biceps brachii flexes the joint when it contracts.

Interactive animation to see this concept in action

Of course, there are never really only two muscles acting on a joint. In the scenario I just described, the Brachialis and Brachioradialis would be acting on the elbow in flexion with the Biceps, and the Anconæus would act with the Triceps, although it has a very minor function.

Three Types of Muscle
As the title of this section implies, there are three types of muscle: Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth.



Skeletal Muscle
Despite the fact that there are three types of muscle, skeletal muscle is the kind most stressed by the event. Science Olympiad requires you to know 50 skeletal muscles for the event. A comprehensive list can be found here. The skeletal muscle is the kind most commonly thought of when one hears the word "muscle". Examples include Vastus muscles, the Rectus abdominis, and the Biceps brachii.




 * A Tendon attaches muscle to bone. The Epimysium (plural epimysia) is a layer of dense connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle. Its function is to protect muscles from friction that occurs between other muscles and bones.  In tendons, it is thicker and contains more collagen.
 * The muscle consists of many Fascicles (aka bundles) of muscle fibers. Each fasicle is wrapped in a connective tissue covering called the Perimysium.
 * The Endomysium consists mostly of reticular fibers. It is the sheath of connective tissue surrounding a fiber.

Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber



 * The skeletal muscle fiber is a cell.
 * The Sarcolemma is the plasma membrane.
 * It has multiple inward extensions which form a set of T Tubules (the T stands for transverse).
 * The Sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm & the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum is the endoplasmic reticulum.
 * Myofibrils are the cylindrical organelles found inside a muscle fiber.
 * Myofilaments are the filaments of a myofibril.
 * Myofilaments are organized into repeating units called Sarcomeres.



When muscles contract, the I band and H zone decrease in length but the A band stays the same length.
 * Above is a picture of the structure of sarcomere.
 * There are two types of myofilaments. Myosin filaments are thick and Actin filaments are thin.
 * Z lines separate myofibrils into the compartments called sarcomeres.
 * I bands are where there are only thin filaments.
 * H zones are where there are only thick filaments.
 * A bands are all along the thick filaments. (some overlapping)

The NMJ and Muscle Contraction
The neuromuscular junction is the point where a motor neuron meets the muscle fiber. One motor neuron can form many NMJ's. The surface of the muscle fiber forms small ridged folds for the end of axon to rest in. Inside these folds are depressions with acetylcholine receptors. The folds are known as synaptic clefts.

Acetylcholine is necessary for life. It is the only neurotransmitter that is used in the motor division of the somatic nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary actions.

Muscular System Diseases
Muscles have many important functions in the body. They: 
 * Enable movement
 * Aid in respiration (diaphragm)
 * Aid in digestion
 * Protect internal organs
 * Help move blood throughout the body

Endocrine System
 The Endocrine System is a series of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Any gland that secretes directly into the blood is thereby called an endocrine gland. An exocrine gland is one that secretes hormones into a duct. The pancreas is an example of both kinds, because it secretes different hormones through different channels.

Feedback Inhibition
Feedback inhibition is the process that regulates the level of hormones in the body. 

Mechanics
The Respiratory system is controlled in mammals by the diaphragm muscle. When the diaphragm is relaxed, the thoracic cavity is decreased in size. However, when the muscle is contracted, it pulls downward, adding size to the thoracic cavity. While this happens, the intercostal muscles pull upwards on the ribcage, adding more space to the thoracic cavity. When the diaphragm relaxes, it pushes upward on the lungs, along with the intercostal muscles pushing downward on the ribcage. These muscles decrease the volume while increasing their internal pressure. When the diaphragm relaxes, the lungs gain volume and lose pressure, causing a partial vacuum. Having no choice at this point but to follow the laws of nature, air follows the pressure gradient and rushes into the lungs.

Control of Breathing
Unlike digestion, pupil contraction, and the beating of your heart, breathing is controlled both unconsciously and consciously. Few other actions are like this, blinking being another example. When you are not thinking about your breathing, such as when you are at rest, you will unconsciously regulate your air intake. But when performing activities such as exercise, talking, or swimming, you are consciously deciding when to breath. When not being actively controlled, breathing is controlled by the brainstem. The brainstem will automatically regulate breathing as needed by the body. For instance, when you exercise, you need ATP for muscle contraction to occur. When you strength train, you enter the zone called anaerobic exercise. This triggers anaerobic metabolism, which causes a buildup of lactic acid in the body. This lowers blood pH, which can be fatal. The brainstem then increases the rate of breathing.

Sample Exercise
Here are some sample problems for Anatomy:

1. Write down the detailed path of the blood traveling through the heart, to the rest of the body, and back again.

2. List the three types of blood vessels and describe how they are different and alike.

3. What is the function of the atrium? ventricles?

4. What is the job of the Vena cava? the Aorta?

5. What does the valves of the heart do?

Disease and Drugs.

What are some of the effects of nicotine on the body?

How does caffeine affect your blood pressure?

How does alcohol affect the human body?

How will the deposit of plaque in your blood vessels affect your health? What are some of the diseases you will get?

Calculations

If systolic pressure is 112 and diastolic pressure is 80, what is the pulse pressure? The Mean Arterial Pressure? Please list the equations you used.

One of your classmates has a heart rate of 72, a systolic pressure of 138 and diastolic pressure of 65, and an end diastolic volume of 105 and end systolic volume of 46. What is their cardiac output? Please write the equation you used.

Below is a diagram of the spinal cord followed by a question sheet and an answer sheet. In the answer sheet, remember to imagine lines after the numbers.



5. What are the smallest kind of blood vessel?

6. Name the kind of circulation if the blood goes from the heart to the lungs.

7. Name the kind of circulation if the blood goes from the lungs to the muscles to the heart.

8. Name the layers of the heart from outside to inside.

9. Where is the transportation of nutrients to a muscle occur?

Useful links

 * Most important link, to the official site of the Anatomy event
 * for disease information webmd.com
 * US National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health
 * the national institute of drug abuse
 * The text and some images from Gray's Anatomy
 * Detailed, interactive diagrams on parts of the systems
 * Scioly Test Exchange
 * National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
 * Great tutorial on the human skeleton