Fossils/Vertebrates

Main article: Fossils

Subphylum Vertebrata

Picture(s)	No pictures have been added as of yet.
Physical Description	Have a backbone and cranium.
Fossil Range	Evolved during the Cambrian Explosion.
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata
Adaptations Over Time	Slowly became bigger and more terrestrial. They evolved bigger jaws and stronger bones.

Superclass Agnatha (Jawless Fish) (Ostracoderms)

This fossil will only be tested at the State and National levels.

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Common Names	Jawless fish, including lampreys and hagfish.
Physical Description	They lack paired appendages and jaws. They have skin but no dermal or epidermal scales. Instead of stomachs, they simply have one long gut. Cold-blooded (ectothermic). Two-chambered heart. They have seven or more paired gill pouches. Possess a notochord (a cartilage-like rod that is a characteristic feature of all chordates in at least one stage of life) during their larval and adult stages. They possess a photoreceptive parietal eye for regulating circadian rhythm and body heat. The skeleton is made of cartilage.
Fossil Range	Cambrian Explosion to present-day.
Taxonomy	Agnatha is split up into Cyclostomata (extant and comprising lampreys and hagfish, ~120 species), Conodonta (extinct), and Ostracoderms (extinct). Sister taxon to Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates). rRNA and mtDNA data suggest that Cyclostomata is monophyletic.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Cold marine waters from 10 meters deep at high latitudes to 1300 meters at low altitudes. Lampreys feed on other fish and mammals. Hagfish are scavengers. No known parental care, fertilization is most likely external.
Distribution	Worldwide, except for tropics and polar regions.
Etymology	Ancient Greek for "without jaws."
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notochord. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnatha. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_eye.

Class Placodermi (Armored Jawed Fish)

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Common Names	Placoderms
Physical Description	Most were small fish reaching lengths of 15 cm; however, a few species reached lengths of 4 to 10 meters. They all have jaws, an internal skeleton, head and trunk armor, paired fins, and projecting spines to the sides of the trunk shield. A neck joint allowed them to lift the anterior portion of their head shield. The head and thorax are covered by armored, bony plates. The rest of the body is either covered in small plates or has no plates. The bony plates have three layers, a basal layer made of compact bone, a middle layer made of spongy bone, and a superficial layer.
Fossil Range	Early Silurian (in China) to the Late Devonian (“Age of Fish”). They became extinct at the end-Devonian Hangenberg event.
Taxonomy	Infraphylum: Gnathostomata. Thought to be paraphyletic, consisting of sister groups to modern jawed vertebrates. However, they could be monophyletic. First studied by Louis Agassiz, 1833-1843.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Placoderms lived in both marine and freshwater environments. They were predators and some may have been filter feeders.
Adaptations Over Time	One of the first fish that developed jaws. They evolved jaws from their gill arches. Instead of teeth, they had bony plates. First fish to develop paired pelvic fins, which would later develop into hindlimbs. First fish to develop true teeth. Some genera in this class exhibit the oldest known examples of live birth.
Distribution	Worldwide distribution by the Devonian.
Etymology	Comes from the Greek for plate-skinned or tablet-skinned.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothriolepis. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placodermi. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pala.12093.

Genus Bothriolepis

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Physical Description	Around 30 cm long, but the largest species (B. rex) could be 170 cm long. Lifted their bodies with pectoral fins. Bothriolepis also could have used its fins to throw sediment over itself. Had heavily armored heads attached to the thoracic shield and two holes on their heads (one on the upper side for the eyes and nose and one on the lower side for the mouth), along with preorbital recesses (separate bones below the eyes and noses). The thoracic shield covered almost half of their body. In addition to its gills, they had pouches that connected to the oesophagus, which may have been rudimentary lungs that may have allowed them to live for short periods out of the water. The two halves of the jaw are separate, and adults can use them independently of one another. The tail (caudal fin) was long and is rarely preserved due to its soft nature.
Fossil Range	(Middle and) Late Devonian, ~387-360 mya.
Taxonomy	Order: Antiarchi Family: Bothriolepididae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Benthic detritus feeders. Found in both shore marine and freshwater. Likely to have spent most of its life in freshwater but probably entered saltwater at times.
Distribution	Widespread and abundant. Worldwide, in every paleo-continent.
Etymology	Means pitted scale or trench scale in Greek.
Additional Information	Bothriolepis is a diverse genus.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothriolepis.

Genus Dunkleosteus

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Physical Description	Some of the largest placoderms. Largest species could grow up to 8.79 m long. Could open and close jaws very quickly, with a bite force of 6000 N. Could weigh up to 4 tons. Instead of teeth, they had 2 pairs of sharp plates which formed a beak. Juveniles likely also had large bite forces.
Fossil Range	Late Devonian, 382-352 mya. It became extinct in the Hangenberg event.
Taxonomy	Order: Arthrodira Family: Dunkleosteidae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Hypercarnivorous apex predators. Diet could have included armored prey such as ammonites and other placoderms. Sometimes cannibalized. May have been pelagic. They were slow swimmers so they ambushed their prey to hunt. Lived in shallow waters as juveniles, then moved to deeper waters. Speed of jaw opening and closing is consistent with suction feeding, where prey is sucked into the predator’s mouth.
Adaptations Over Time	May have been among the first vertebrates to internalize egg fertilization.
Distribution	Many fossils have been found in North America, Belgium, Morocco, and Poland.
Etymology	Named in 1956 after David Dunkle, a paleontologist at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. ὀστέον, "osteon" is Greek for bone.
Additional Information	Only about 5% of specimens have more than a quarter of the skeleton preserved. Specimens often found with boluses (balled up mix of food and saliva) of fish bones, may have regurgitated bones instead of digesting them.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunkleosteus.

Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fish)

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Common Names	Cartilaginous fish.
Physical Description	Have skeletons made of cartilage with tough skins covered in sharp tooth-like scales (dermal denticles or placoid scales) which are all oriented in one direction. Electric rays are the exception: they have flabby bodies. Chondrichthyans have paired fins and paired nostrils. Their hearts have two chambers in series. The notochord is replaced by vertebrae. They lack bone marrow: red blood cells are created in the spleen and epigonal organ. Some sharks and rays have Leydig’s organs which also produce red blood cells. They have five to seven pairs of gills. Sharks, skates, and rays have special electrosensory organs known as ampullae of Lorenzini. Some species have two dorsal (back) fins while some have one dorsal fin. The pectoral (side) fins are used for steering. The pelvic fin is found on the stomach and stabilizes the body. The clasper is an organ in males found near the pelvic fin used for mating. The tail is called the caudal fin and gives propulsion. It is heterocercal, meaning the upper lobe is bigger than the lower lobe and contains part of the vertebral column. The anal fin, if present, is also used for stabilization.
Fossil Range	Late Silurian to recent.
Taxonomy	Infraphylum: Gnathostomata. Split into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates, and sawfish) and Holocephali (chimaeras/ghost sharks).
Mode of Life or Habitat	Can be pelagic (in which case they must keep swimming to get water through their gills) or demersal (in which case they can pump water in through the spiracles behind their eyes and out through their gills). Due to their lack of a swim bladder, pelagic species must continuously swim to avoid sinking (buoyancy is given by large amounts of liver oil). Most are marine. Only 5% are restricted to freshwater (e.g. the freshwater stingray). Half of the species live down to depths of 200 m (on the continental slope) while 35% live in depths of 200-2000 m. Beyond that, high salinity and low oxygen levels pose as barriers. Only 5% swim through the open ocean (e.g. the great white shark). Some give birth to eggs surrounded by egg cases/capsules while others give live birth. Predators.
Adaptations Over Time	Among the first vertebrates to evolve jaws and bony teeth. Evolved from spiny sharks (Acanthodii). Very diverse group.
Distribution	Waters worldwide.
Etymology	From Greek "cartilage fish," χονδρ chondr "cartilage" + ἰχθύς ichthys "fish."
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrichthyes. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/obl4he/vertebratediversity/chondrichthyes.html. https://nhpbs.org/wild/chondrichthyes.asp. http://www.comfsm.fm/~brianl/chondrichthyes.html.

Superorder Selachimorpha (Sharks)

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Common Names	Sharks
Physical Description	Usually streamlined body. The jaws are not attached to the cranium. They shed and replace their teeth and scales. The teeth are made of calcium phosphate, an apatite. The pectoral fin is not fused to the head. Can range from 17 cm (the pygmy shark) to 12 m (the whale shark).
Fossil Range	Late Silurian to modern-day, 425- mya.
Taxonomy	Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Mode of Life or Habitat	Common to depths of 2000 m. Usually do not dwell in freshwater, although some do (bull shark and river shark can be found in freshwater and seawater). Well-known species are apex predators. Poikilotherms, "cold-blooded." Most live 20 to 30 years. Sharks practice internal fertilization.
Adaptations Over Time	Sharks have a hydrodynamic shape in order to swim with less resistance, with tapered ends at the head and tail. Most sharks are dark with pale bellies, with camouflages them from above and below.
Distribution	Waters worldwide.
Etymology	The origin of the word "shark" is uncertain.
Additional Information	Some have biofluorescence. Some species can detect as little as 1 ppm of blood in seawater.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark.

Genus Otodus

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Common Names	A type of mackerel shark (all sharks in Lamniformes are mackerel sharks).
Physical Description	The teeth could get to 10.4 cm tall, and the vertebral centrum could get over 12.7 cm wide. Thus, the maximum length of the shark is estimated to be between 9.1 and 12.2 meters long. The teeth have a triangular crown and smooth cutting edges with visible cusps on the roots.
Fossil Range	Paleocene to Pleistocene (66-0.34 mya).
Taxonomy	Order: Lamniformes Family: Otodontidae.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Top predator. Likely preyed on large bony fish, aquatic mammals, and other sharks.
Adaptations Over Time	Transitional teeth show Otodus evolving into Carcharocles. These teeth have lightly serrated cusplets and serrated cutting edges and are found all over the world (Maryland, Belgium, and Kazakhstan), implying that the evolution occurred worldwide. The ancestor of Carcharocles is thought to be O. aksuaticus.
Distribution	Worldwide.
Etymology	Ancient Greek ὠτ (ōt, "ear") and ὀδούς (odoús, "tooth"), combining to make "ear-shaped tooth."
Additional Information	Fossilized parts are teeth and vertebrae.
External Links	http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=34621. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otodus.

Genus Carcharocles

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Physical Description	Carcharocles is estimated to be 13 meters long - they are one of the world's largest predators. They have about 24 teeth in their upper jaw and 20 in their lower jaw.
Fossil Range	Early Eocene to Pliocene
Taxonomy	Order: Lamniformes Family: Otodontidae Sometimes considered a subgenus of Otodus, the genus from which it is said to have descended.
Mode of Life or Habitat	They could be found in shallow coastal waters, swampy coastal lagoons, offshore deep water environments, etc. They are a transient species - they often move around.
Distribution	Found worldwide (in North and South America, Africa, Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand).
Additional Information	In Greek, Carcharocles means "Famed for Jaggedness."

Species C. megalodon

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Common Names	Megalodon
Physical Description	Around 10.5 m long on average and up to 16 m. Their jaws could exert forces of up to 180000 N. Large, triangular teeth with serrations and a V-shaped neck. In 1926, a partial vertebral column was found in Belgium made up of 150 vertebral centra. The centra were 5.5-15.5 cm in diameter. May have looked similar to a great white shark. Its skeleton was heavily calcified. They had about 276 teeth in 5 rows.
Fossil Range	Late Oligocene to late Pliocene, ~28-2.6 mya.
Taxonomy	Agassiz assigned the species to Carcharodon (great white sharks) in 1843. Another genus that the megalodon is commonly designated under is Otodus.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Adults were not abundant in shallow water environments, and mostly lurked offshore. They gave birth to their young in shallow water environments. Top predator. Probably ate large animals such as whales, seals, and sea turtles.
Distribution	Worldwide. Teeth have been found in the Mariana Trench.
Etymology	Megalodon means "big tooth" in Greek.
Additional Information	Went extinct from numerous different factors including the cooling of the ocean, sea level drops, and habitat loss due to the Ice Age, as well as competition from whale-eating whales for food. After the megalodon went extinct, baleen whales became significantly larger. In the Renaissance, megalodon teeth were thought to be the tongues of dragons and snakes and were called glossopetrae.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalodon.

Superorder Batoidea (Rays)

This fossil will only be tested at the State and National levels.

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Common Names	Rays and skates
Physical Description	Flat bodies made of a tough, elastic material. Disk-like bodies. Rays and skates always have spiracles, unlike sharks, which are holes behind the eyes that allow oxygen into the body. The eyes are on the top of the head, unlike sharks which have eyes on the sides. The pectoral fins are not distinct, whereas sharks have distinct pectoral fins. Rays and skates swim by flapping their pectoral fins like wings. The tails are whip-like, and the gills are under the body (five gill openings). They have heavy, rounded teeth for crushing the shells of prey. Some rays may have tails that contain venom. The flat body combines with the color of the top of the body to allow the ray to camouflage in the sand, waiting overhead for prey.
Fossil Range	Early Triassic to present-day.
Taxonomy	Subclass: Elasmobranchii Contains more than 500 species, and 13 families.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Usually live on the seafloor in coastal waters. Mostly docile and slow-moving. Varied diets: they eat mostly fishes and invertebrates. Some eat plankton and other small organisms. Rays exhibit internal fertilization, giving birth to live young. Skates give birth to egg cases, which have been called "mermaid’s purses."
Distribution	Worldwide. They prefer tropical and subtropical waters.
Etymology	Named after Batis, a genus of sparrow-like birds.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batoidea. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Batoidea.

Superclass Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)

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Common Names	Bony fish
Physical Description	Fish with bone skeletons. They usually have overlapping scales and three pairs of gills. A series of bones called the operculum covers the gills and supports the face. The fin spines and rays are called lepidotrichia. Bony fish usually have swim bladders, which allow them to keep their place in the water without using their fins. One notable group of fish that do not possess swim bladders are lungfish.
Fossil Range	Evolved in the Late Silurian.
Taxonomy	Infraphylum: Gnathostomata The taxon is paraphyletic: it does not include land vertebrates, which evolved from fish.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Found in both marine and freshwater environments.
Adaptations Over Time	Possibly evolved from early placoderms. Grew better at foraging and locomotion as time passed.
Distribution	Worldwide.
Etymology	The name is Ancient Greek for "bone fish," ὀστέον (ostéon, "bone") + ἰχθῡ́ς (ikhthū́s, "fish").
Additional Information	Largest class/superclass of vertebrates extant today.
External Links	https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Osteichthyes. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteichthyes. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_fish.

Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned)

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Common Names	Ray-finned fish
Physical Description	Ray-finned fish are fish that have fins with webs of skin supported by bony/horny spines (called rays). They range from less than a centimeter long to around 12 meters.
Fossil Range	Evolved during Late Silurian. The earliest known ray-finned fish was Andreolepis hedei, dating back 420 mya, found in Russia, Sweden, and Estonia.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Seawater and freshwater at all depths. Most use external fertilization, with the female laying the eggs and then the male inseminating them. They feed on algae, diatoms, insects, and smaller fish.
Adaptations Over Time	The swim bladder evolved into a more efficient organ in the teleost making them neutrally buoyant.
Distribution	Worldwide.
Etymology	New Latin actino- (possessing rays) + Ancient Greek πτέρυξ (ptérux, "fins").
Additional Information	99% of the over 30,000 species of fish extant. Largest class of vertebrates extant today.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinopterygii. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Actinopterygii.

Genus Knightia

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Physical Description	Resembles herrings. The size ranges from 6 cm to 15 cm, with some growing up to 25 cm (K. eocaena). Heavy scales and small, conical teeth.
Fossil Range	(Late Cretaceous? to) Early Eocene, ~84-23.03 mya.
Taxonomy	Order: Clupeiformes Family: Clupeidae Subfamily: Pellonulinae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Freshwater lakes and rivers. Probably fed on algae and diatoms, and possibly insects and smaller fish. They traveled in large schools and so were a bountiful food source for predators.
Distribution	North America and Asia
Etymology	Named by David Starr Jordan in 1907 in honor of Wilbur Clinton Knight, a professor at the University of Wyoming.
Additional Information	Knightia is the state fossil of Wyoming. It is the most commonly excavated fossil fish worldwide. Knightia is abundant in Wyoming’s Green River Formation, and is often found being preyed on by larger fish fossils.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knightia. http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=35455.

Genus Xiphactinus

This fossil will only be tested at the State and National levels.

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Common Names	X-fish. Bulldog fish.
Physical Description	Approximately 5.1 m long with fangs and a distinctive underbite. It was the largest bony fish of the Cretaceous. The tail is forked, and attached to a narrow base. The jaw is very mobile, and therefore able to take in large prey. Its body is slender.
Fossil Range	Cretaceous, ~112-66 mya. They died out during the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction.
Taxonomy	Order: Ichthyodectiformes Family: Ichthyodectidae Subfamily: Ichthyodectinae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Shallow and deep marine. Very predatory, consuming fish, seabirds, and maybe pterosaurs. It was common for a dead or bleeding Xiphactinus fish to be eaten by sharks.
Distribution	Kansas, the US east coast, Europe, Australia, Canada, Venezuela, and Argentina. During the Cretaceous, the American midwest was submerged under the Western Interior Sea.
Etymology	Greek xiphos meaning sword + New Latin actino meaning ray.
Additional Information	State fossil of Kansas. Often found with undigested/partially digested prey inside their stomachs. We do not know much about the larval and juvenile phrases of their life cycle. Republican Representative of Kansas Tom Sloan proposed that Xiphactinus be the Kansan state fossil in 2010, but it did not happen.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphactinus. https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-xiphactinus-1093712. https://blog.everythingdinosaur.co.uk/blog/_archives/2010/08/22/4610992.html.

Class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned)

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Physical Description	Their fins differ from those of all other fish - each is on a fleshy, lobelike stalk extending from the body.
Fossil Range	Late Silurian to recent.
Mode of Life or Habitat	They live in a combination of aquatic and terrestrial environments, hibernating while on land. They are ovoviviparous, and they have lungs and gills.

Genus Eusthenopteron

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Physical Description	They were 5-6 feet long, and covered in scaly skin. Eusthenopteron had internal nostrils (called choanae), like tetrapods, as well as tetrapod-like teeth with enamel and a two-part cranium. The lepidotrichia cover all of its fins, and its fore-fin and pelvic fin endoskeletons resemble arms and legs respectively.
Fossil Range	Late Devonian, 383.7-376.1 mya.
Taxonomy	Clade: Tetrapodomorpha Clade: Eotetrapodiformes Family: Tristichopteridae First described in 1881 by J. F. Whiteaves.
Mode of Life or Habitat	They lived in shallow waterways, and preyed on smaller fish. Strictly aquatic, although it has a close relationship to tetrapods that made it onto land. Previously thought to have been one of the aquatic animals that started to make its way onto land. No larval stage has been found with evidence that it metamorphosizes into the adult Eusthenopteron, suggesting that it might hatch as an adult form.
Adaptations Over Time	They have a close relationship to tetrapods. Earliest animal known to have bone marrow.
Distribution	Quebec (Shore of River Ristigouche, Miguasha)
Etymology	Greek: eustheno ("strength") + pteron ("wing"), possibly combining to form strongly developed fins.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusthenopteron. https://www.wired.com/2012/05/a-new-twist-in-the-tetrapod-tale/. http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=34918.

Genus Latimeria (Coelacanth)

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Common Names	A genus of coelacanth. There are two extant species: the West Indian Ocean coelacanth (L. chalumnae) and the Indonesian coelacanth (L. menadoensis). In Indonesia, the Indonesian coelacanth is known as raja laut, king of the sea. In South Africa, Latimeria was termed gombessa or mame.
Physical Description	They are approximately 2 m long and weigh 80 kg. Like all coelacanths, they have a three-lobed tail with the spinal column extending to the end of the tail (diphycercal). The West Indian Ocean coelacanth is deep blue while the Indonesian coelacanth is brown.
Fossil Range	Middle Pleistocene (0.02 mya) to present-day.
Taxonomy	Subclass: Actinistia Order: Coelacanthiformes Family Latimeriidae
Mode of Life or Habitat	They are found in deep reefs and volcanic slopes in both freshwater and marine environments. They eat cuttlefish, squid, snipe eels, small sharks, and other fish. They give birth to live young (pups).
Adaptations Over Time	One of the slowest evolving genomes of all known vertebrates. They are able to control the speed of their metabolism, achieving hibernation-like effects. Coelacanths can swim backwards and belly up in order to catch prey. Their eyes are very sensitive, which is why they are almost never found in daylight or well-lit water. Their eyes have an abundance of rods to detect objects in low light and a layer of tissue called the tapetum lucidum which helps night vision.
Distribution	Indian Ocean (critically endangered) and Indonesia (vulnerable). The water must be cold and well-oxygenated. Usually live in depths of 90-200 m but can be found as deep as 700 m.
Etymology	Coelacanth comes from Greek koilos ("hollow") + akantha ("spine"), referring to their unique hollow spine fins.
Additional Information	Coelacanths are living fossils and were once thought to be extinct in the Late Cretaceous. As a whole, coelacanths are now extremely rare. Growth rings in the ears (calcium carbonate otoliths) indicate that they can live up to 80 to 100 years.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latimeria. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indian_Ocean_coelacanth. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_coelacanth.

Genus Tiktaalik

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Common Names	Some people call Tiktaalik a "fishapod."
Physical Description	3 to 9 feet long. The eyes were on the top of the skull, rather than the sides. The shoulders were not connected to the skull, so it had a functional neck. They had "arms," including a shoulder, elbow, and wrist. Their skeletons could support their bodies.
Fossil Range	Late Devonian, 383.7-376.1 mya.
Taxonomy	Clade: Tetrapodomorpha Clade: Eotetrapodiformes Clade: Elpistostegalia Clade: Stegocephalia There is only one species: T. roseae.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Lived in estuaries and deltas. They ate smaller fish and bug-like creatures. It is unlikely that they could live entirely on land.
Adaptations Over Time	They are an important transition fossil between fish and tetrapods.
Distribution	Found in Bird Fiord, in Nunavut, Canada.
Etymology	"Tiktaalik" is Inuktitut for "large freshwater fish."
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiktaalik. http://fossilworks.org/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=77132.

Class Amphibia (Amphibians)

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Common Names	Amphibians
Physical Description	Changes in anatomy allowed the upper body to be propped up for breathing, the head to turn, and created a rigid structure strong enough to support walking. Their eyes are larger than their predecessors because eyesight is more important on land than in water. They can weigh up to 500 pounds.
Fossil Range	Evolved during the Late Devonian. Lost relevance to reptiles during the Carboniferous rainforest collapse and were hurt during the Permian-Triassic extinction.
Taxonomy	Superclass: Tetrapoda
Mode of Life or Habitat	Most undergo metamorphosis where the larva’s gills are replaced by lungs. Amphibians need water bodies in order to reproduce. They are usually not found in the sea and live in moist habitats on land. Most amphibians are predators, eating almost anything that is swallowable and moves.
Adaptations Over Time	They may have moved to land because of seasonal droughts and escape from drying pools, or maybe because they were carnivores and the land had a lot of arthropods which they could eat.
Distribution	All continents except Antarctica.
Etymology	"Amphibia" means "double life" and refers to a life cycle that includes an aquatic existence and a terrestrial existence.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian.

Genus Acanthostega

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Physical Description	One of the first vertebrates to have recognizable limbs. They had eight digits on each hand linked by webbing. They lacked wrists and were generally unfit to come on land. They had both lungs and gills. About 0.7 m long and 10-20 kg. They had stubby legs. It had fish-like teeth and a lateral line organ (a system of epithelial cells, or hair cells, that detect movement in nearby water).
Fossil Range	Late Devonian, 365 mya.
Taxonomy	Clade: Tetrapodomorpha Clade: Eotetrapodiformes Clade: Elpistostegalia Clade: Stegocephalia
Mode of Life or Habitat	Rivers and shallow, weed-choked swamps. Probably ate fish. May have spent most of its time in shallow water.
Adaptations Over Time	In general, they were poorly adapted for going on land (for example, joints were not very mobile, shoulder and forearm were very fish-like, ribs were too short to support the chest out of water). The eight digits on each hand perhaps indicates that Acanthostega may have been an evolutionary dead end.
Distribution	Northern latitudes.
Etymology	From Ancient Greek ᾰ̓́κᾰνθᾰ ákantha (“thorn” or “spine”) + στεγανός steganós (“roof”), combining to form “spiny roof”
Additional Information	A famous fossil was found by Jennifer A. Clark in East Greenland in 1987, though fragments of the skull had been found in 1993 by Erik Jarvik and Gunnar Säve-Söderbergh.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthostega. https://www.thoughtco.com/overview-of-acanthostega-1093636. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_line.

Genus Eryops

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Physical Description	1.5-2 m long but could grow up to 3 m. One of the largest land animals of its time. Adults were around 90 kg. Stout body with very wide ribs, a strong spine, four short and strong legs, a short tail, and a wide and elongated skull with many sharp teeth and strong jaws. Their skulls were broad and flat (2.0 feet or 60 cm long). Eryops had an unusually large skull and mouth with many curved teeth, with enamel in a folded pattern. The limbs were long and strong. The shoulder girdle is disconnected from the skull for improved terrestrial locomotion.
Fossil Range	Late Carboniferous to Early Permian, 299-278 mya.
Taxonomy	Order: Temnospondyli Family: Eryopidae Thought to have one species, E. megacephalus.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Probably had similar hunting behavior to crocodiles, eating large fish and aquatic tetrapods. Habitat was lowland habitats in and around ponds, streams, rivers, and lakes. Juveniles probably lived in swamps which gave them protection from predators, while adults spent most of their time on land, although there was no sudden metamorphosis like with modern amphibians, instead slowly transitioning from aquatic larvae.
Distribution	North America and western Europe. Mostly Texas (Permian) and New Mexico (Carboniferous).
Etymology	Ancient Greek ἐρύειν, eryein (“drawn-out”) + ὤψ, ops (“face”) since most of its face is in front of its eyes.
Additional Information	Skull and teeth are most common fossils, but several complete skeletons have been found.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryops.

Genus Diplocaulus

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Physical Description	The skull is shaped like a boomerang, possibly serving as a hydrofoil (helping Diplocaulus glide through the water) or as a defense mechanism. The bodies were stocky and salamander-like and reached 1 meter long, making them relatively large land animals for the time. They likely swam with an up and down movement like dolphins. Skulls are up to 40 centimeters wide across the horn tips. Their mouth gape was very small because the lower jaw hinge was posterior to the eye sockets. Diplocaulus is thought to have a long, thin tail that could curl up to reach the head, as in one fossil described in 1917, there were tail vertebrae next to the head. As a result, Diplocaulus is thought to have used anguilliform (eel-like) tail movement to propel itself.
Fossil Range	Late Carboniferous to Late Permian, 306-255 mya.
Taxonomy	Subclass: Lepospondyli Order: Nectridea Family: Diplocaulidae.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Lived in rivers, lakes, and swamps. They ate insects and fish.
Adaptations Over Time	Their head shape could have been defensive because predators would have a hard time trying to swallow such a large head.
Distribution	North America and North Africa.
Etymology	The name means "double caul" (the caul is the piece of membrane that covers a newborn’s head and face.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplocaulus.

Class Reptilia (Reptiles)

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Common Names	Reptiles.
Physical Description	Reptiles have scales and dry, thin skin. They have either 0 or 4 legs. They have ear holes instead of ears. They range from 17 mm to 6 m in length. They have a 3-chambered heart with 2 atria, 1 ventricle, and 2 aortas. They use lungs to breathe.
Fossil Range	Evolved during the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and possibly the Early Carboniferous. They were dominant during the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic.
Taxonomy	Superclass: Tetrapoda
Mode of Life or Habitat	They are oviparous, and they shed their skin continuously throughout their lifetimes. Most are insectivorous or carnivorous.

Order Crocodilia (crocodiles)

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Order Testudines (turtles)

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Order Icthyosauria (Ichthyosaurs)

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Common Names	Ichthyosaurs
Physical Description	Eel-like, 1-16+ m long although they averaged 2-4 m. They had big eyes, the largest eyes of any reptile discovered. These large eyes support the hypothesis that ichthyosaurs underwent deep diving, since large eyes would have been useful for being able to see on deep dives. Later species were more dolphin-like (convergent evolution) than eel-like. Ichthyosaurs had elongated skulls and conical teeth, made of enamel and dentin, although teeth could also have cutting edges or crowns, depending on the species and its diet, e.g. shellfish-eaters versus fish-eaters. Many ichthyosaurs were heterodonts, with different tooth shapes in different parts of the mouth. Buoyant. Could swim up to 25 mph, making them perhaps one of the fastest marine reptiles to exist. The number of fingers varies by species, from two to up to ten per hand. The pelvis is loose, with the ilium, ischium, and pubic bone disconnected from each other. Possibly contained blubber (as evidenced by the 2018 discovery of Stenopterygius).
Fossil Range	Early Triassic to Late Cretaceous, 250-90 mya. Most abundant in late Triassic and early Jurassic. Afterwards they were displaced by competition with plesiosaurs. Died out from the Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event, which disturbed the oxygen and sulfur cycles in the ocean, as well as the carbon cycle, possibly from undersea volcanoes.
Taxonomy	Subclass: Diapsida. Although they were once thought to be amphibians, it is now agreed that they are reptiles and that they descended from terrestrial tetrapods.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Carnivores. Wide range of prey, with different species having different diets, ranging from fish to cephalopods to birds to even smaller ichthyosaurs. Some ichthyosaurs crushed their prey with flat teeth, while others may have been suction feeders or used other methods. Ichthyosaurs gave birth to live young (i.e. they were viviparous), unlike terrestrial reptiles. Their sight was their most important sense: their hearing could have been poor. Ichthyosaurs may also have had electroreception capabilities. Ichthyosaurs were eaten by sharks and other ichthyosaurs, then by plesiosaurs and crocodilians after they evolved. It is thought that despite being a reptile, ichthyosaurs were warm-blooded (endothermic).
Adaptations Over Time	Earlier species swam by moving their whole body from side to side (anguilliform motion), but later species swam moving only their tails (carangiform or possibly thunniform motion). Later species had paddle-shaped fins in place of forelimbs and hindlimbs (analogous structures with dolphin fins, although ichthyosaurs are not closely related to dolphins).
Distribution	All Mesozoic oceans. Found in Europe, North America, South America, and Asia.
Etymology	Ichthyosauria means "fish lizard." Named in 1821 by William Daniel Conybeare and Henry de la Beche.
Additional Information	Hundreds of specimens recovered. Skin impressions through bacterial mats reveal the dorsal and caudal fins (which are not usually preserved). Many well-preserved fossils in Germany. One genus of ichthyosaur was found in the Solnhofen Limestone in Germany and seemed to show impressions of scales. Coprolites are common. Gastroliths are also sometimes found and may have helped with regulating buoyancy or digestion. It is debated whether ichthyosaurs had dorsal fins.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthyosaur.

Order Squamata

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Family Mosasauridae (Mosasaurs)

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Common Names	Mosasaur
Physical Description	Could grow up to 17 m long. The largest known fossil on display is 13 m long and is named Bruce, displayed at the Canadian Fossil Discovery Center in Manitoba, Canada. However, some species were around 1 m long. Mosasaurs had black backs and white bellies, similar to modern great white sharks, as indicated by melanin concentrations. They were streamlined swimmers, and their tails ended in two crescent-shaped flukes. They had webbed paddles for limbs. Their jaws were double-hinged, meaning that they could extend their mouths to eat large prey whole. They do not have dorsal crests, although some popular images show them with dorsal crests, since tracheal cartilage fossils were mistaken for dorsal crests for a period. While they were originally thought to undergo eel-like motion, moving their whole body back and forth to swim (anguilliform motion), the discovery of tail flukes means that they likely used their tails for propelling their body instead. They had an expanded chest region, suggesting that they had 2 lungs.
Fossil Range	Late Cretaceous, 101-66 mya. Dominant from the Turonian Age to the Maastrichtian. Died out in the K-T extinction.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Carnivore, eating fish and ammonites for the most part, although some specimens were found with seabirds or smaller mosasaurs. Dominant predators. Lived in warm inland seas. Gave birth to live young (i.e., they were viviparous). Probably were warm-blooded, internally regulating their body temperature (endothermic).
Adaptations Over Time	Mosasaurs evolved under a period of high productivity in the ocean. When productivity dramatically fell, mosasaurs went extinct.
Distribution	Found worldwide: Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Japan, North America, and South America.
Etymology	First fossils discovered in 1764 near the Meuse river, in a limestone quarry near the city of Maastricht, the Netherlands. Named by William Daniel Conybeare in 1822 after the Meuse river.
Additional Information	There are many mosasaur specimens. The first mosasaur fossils were thought to be from a fish, then from a crocodile, then from a sperm whale. The scales are usually not preserved. However, some remarkably well-preserved specimens from Jordan show that mosasaurs had a pattern of diamond-shaped scales covering their body. It is possible that mosasaurs also had a snake-like forked tongue. Similarities in skulls, jaws, and scales suggest that mosasaurs are related to snakes.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaur.

Order Plesiosauria (Plesiosaurs & Pliosaurs)

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Physical Description	They were anywhere from 3 to 20 meters long. They had a broad, flat body and a short tail. Their necks had up to 70 vertebrae. Plesiosaurs had long necks, small heads, and were slow, while pliosaurs had shorter necks, large heads, and were apex predators. They had a euryapsid skull.
Fossil Range	Late Triassic - Late Cretaceous. Became extinct in the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Oceanic environment. Plesiosaurs ate fish and cephalopods. Pliosaurs ate fish, cephalopods, sharks, ichthyosaurs, and even plesiosaurs.
Adaptations Over Time	They have two main morphs - plesiosaurs and pliosaurs.
Distribution	Worldwide
Additional Information	Their name comes from the Greek "plesios" meaning "near to" and "sauros" meaning "lizard."

Order Pterosauria (Pterosaurs)

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Clade Dinosauria (Dinosaurs)

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Order Saurischia (lizard-hipped)

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Suborder Theropoda

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Genus Allosaurus

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Genus Coelophysis

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Genus Dilophosaurus

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Genus Spinosaurus

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Genus Tyrannosaurus

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Genus Velociraptor

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Suborder Sauropodamorpha

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Genus Brachiosaurus

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Genus Diplodocus

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Genus Patagotitan

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Genus Plateosaurus

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Order Ornithischia (bird-hipped)

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Infraorder Anklyosauria

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Genus Ankylosaurus

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Infraorder Ceratopsia

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Genus Triceratops

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Genus Protoceratops

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Infraorder Ornithopoda

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Genus Iguanodon

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Genus Parasaurolophus

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Genus Maiasaura

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Infraorder Pachycephalosauria

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Genus Dracorex

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Infraorder Stegosauria

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Genus Stegosaurus

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Class Aves (Birds)

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Genus Archaeopteryx

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Physical Description	A feathered dinosaur that could be the size of a bluejay to a chicken. Looked similar to a theropod other than the fact that it had feathers.
Fossil Range	Late Jurassic
Distribution	Europe

Genus Titanis (Terror Bird)

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Physical Description	Large flightless carnivore bird. It could reach heights of about 2.5 meters and usually weighed around 150kg. It can most easily be recognized by its large skull and hooked beak.
Fossil Range	Pliocene-Early Pleistocene
Distribution	North America

Genus Icthyornis

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Clade Synapsida

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Mammal-like Reptiles

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Genus Dimetrodon (pelycosaurs)

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Physical Description	They grew up to 3.5 meters long. They have 2 types of teeth - shearing teeth and canine teeth. They have a sail supported by spines sprouting from the vertebrates.
Fossil Range	Permian to Cisuralian.
Mode of Life or Habitat	They were an apex predator.
Adaptations Over Time	Their sail had many uses, such as thermoregulation, sexual display, looking larger to predators, and stabilization of the spine.
Distribution	Mainly Southwestern US, but also Europe.
Additional Information	"Dimetrodon" means "2 measures teeth."

Genus Lystrosaurus (therapsids)

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Physical Description	About 3 feet long. They don't have any teeth besides the tusk-like upper canines. They had huge forearms - thought to be a powerful burrower.
Fossil Range	Late Permian to Early Triassic.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Desert-like landscape. They were herbivores, and ate plants and roots.
Adaptations Over Time	They survived the Permian-Triassic extinction event.
Distribution	Mainly Africa.
Additional Information	"Lystrosaurus" means "shovel lizard." For a while, 95% of all land vertebrates were Lystrosaurus. They are good index fossils.

Class Mammalia (Mammals)

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Genus Basilosaurus (prehistoric whale)

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Genus Equus (modern horse)

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Genus Australopithecus (hominin)

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Genus Homo (hominin)

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Species H. neanderthalensis

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Species H. erectus

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Species H. sapiens

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Genus Mammut (Mastodon)

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Physical Description	Usually around 2.3 meters tall at the shoulders. Could weigh up to 4.5 tons. They had low-crowned or “bunodont” cheek teeth covered in thick enamel. They had 2 or 3 teeth in each half of the jaw.
Fossil Range	Late Miocene-Late Pleistocene
Mode of Life or Habitat	They lived in forests. Their social groups consisted of females and young, while the males abandoned the mixed herds once reaching sexual maturity and lived either alone or in male bond groupings. They mainly ate trees and shrubs.
Distribution	North and Central America, less common in Africa and Eurasia
Additional Information	Their name means "nipple tooth."

Genus Mammuthus (Mammoth)

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Physical Description	About as large as a modern Asian elephant - 2.5 - 3 meters tall at the shoulder. The teeth consisted of a series of plates surrounding a dentine core. They were held together in a matrix of dental cement.
Fossil Range	Early Pliocene-Early Holocene
Mode of Life or Habitat	They ate grasses, fruits, shrubs, etc. Baby mammoths ate the dung of the adults.
Distribution	North America, Eurasia.
Additional Information	The name means “earth” from the Tartar word "mamma."

Species M. primigenius (Wooly Mammoth)

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Physical Description	About the same size as modern African elephants - shoulder height 2.6 - 3.4 meters. They had 4 functional molars at a time. The tusks in males were usually around 2.5 meters long and weighed 45 kg, while in females they were only about 1.5 meters and weighed around 9 kg. They had an outer layer of long hair which was up to 90 cm long. They also had a denser, shorter inner layer of hair.
Fossil Range	Middle Pleistocene to Early Holocene. They became extinct due to climate change or hunting.
Mode of Life or Habitat	Grasses, herbaceous plants, flowering plants, shrubs, etc. Adults needed to eat 6 tons of food daily! They lived in matriarchal family groups.
Adaptations Over Time	They were well adapted to the cold environment of the last ice age - thick layer of fat, fur, small ears (to minimize frostbite), etc.
Distribution	Northern Eurasia and North America.
Additional Information	Their name means "first elephant" in Latin. State fossil of Alaska, Nebraska, and Vermont

Genus Megacerops (Brontothere)

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Physical Description	Up to 5 meters tall. They had an odd number of toes. The dorsal vertebrae above the shoulders had long spines to support the huge neck muscles needed to carry the heavy skull. They had a pair of blunt horns on their snout.
Fossil Range	Late Eocene
Mode of Life or Habitat	The shape of its teeth suggests that it preferred food such as soft stems and leaves, rather than tough vegetation. Adults may have used their horns to defend themselves and their calves from predators.
Distribution	North America
Additional Information	Name means "large-horned face." Closely related to Mesohippus.

Genus Mesohippus (three-toed horse)

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Physical Description	They were about 60 cm tall, 4 feet long, and weighed about 75 pounds. They had three toes.
Fossil Range	Middle Eocene to Early Oligocen
Mode of Life or Habitat	They were herbivores, although their teeth were unsuited to grazing (this trait was adopted in later, more advanced horses)
Adaptations Over Time	Longer legs and longer/larger face than earlier equids. They were faster than earlier horses. They were the first of the three-toed horses.
Distribution	North America
Additional Information	In Greek, "meso" means "middle" and "hippos" means "horse."

Genus Smilodon (saber-toothed cat)

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Physical Description	They weighed up to 400 kg. Their teeth were about 7 inches long and their upper canines were more than 10 inches long. Teeth were fragile, and they had a weaker bite than other big cats. They had a hyoid bone to help them roar. They had shorter but more massive limbs than other felines.
Fossil Range	Pleistocene
Mode of Life or Habitat	They were carnivores - ate bison, elk, deer, etc. They may have lived in social groups. Canines may have been an attraction during mating.
Distribution	North and South America
Additional Information	In Greek, "smile" means "chisel" and "odous" means "tooth." There are hundreds of Smilodon fossils in the La Brea Tar Pits.